affectConscious, subjective aspect of an emotion that accompanies an action at a given time.agonistChemical substance that effectively increases the activity of a neurotransmitter by imitating its effects.alpha adrenergic receptorsGroup of nervous system receptors stimulated by the neurotransmitter norepinephrine.amygdalaPart of the brain''s limbic system that regulates emotions and the ability to learn and control impulses; figures prominently in some psychopathology.antagonistIn neuroscience, a chemical substance that decreases or blocks the effects of a neurotransmitter.arrhythmiaIrregular heartbeat.autonomic nervous systemPart of the peripheral nervous system that regulates cardiovascular (heart and blood vessel), endocrine (hormone), and digestive functions. Includes the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.axonNerve cell branches that transmit outgoing electrochemical impulses to other neurons.basal gangliaBrain area at the base of the forebrain that seems to control motor behavior and to be involved in obsessive-compulsive disorder.beta adrenergic receptorsGroup of nervous system receptors stimulated by the neurotransmitter norepinephrine to increase blood pressure and heart rate. Drugs called beta-blockers act at this level to control high blood pressure.black boxConcept of the inner workings of the organism, such as thoughts and feelings that cannot be observed directly.blind sightPhenomenon in which a person is able to perform visual functions while having no awareness or memory of these abilities. Also called unconscious vision.brain circuitsNeurotransmitter currents or neural pathways in the brain.brain stemAncient lower part of the brain responsible for many life-sustaining automatic functions, such as breathing and coordinated movement.catecholamineOutdated, simplistic theory of the etiology of mood disorders stating that norepinephrine (a catecholamine) excess causes mania, and that low levels of it cause some forms of depression.caudate nucleusBrain structure; part of the basal ganglia that controls motor behavior and is implicated in obsessive-compulsive disorder.central nervous systemBrain and spinal cord.cerebellumPart of the hindbrain in the brain stem that controls motor coordination and may be involved in autism.cerebral cortexLargest part of the forebrain, divided into two hemispheres; responsible for human functions such as perceiving, reasoning, planning, creating, and remembering.clozapineOne of the newer medications for schizophrenia (trade name Clozaril), a weak dopamine antagonist that seems effective in some previously untreatable cases and with fewer serious side effects.cognitive scienceField of study that examines how humans and other animals acquire, process, store, and retrieve information.dendriteNerve cell branches that receive incoming electrochemical information for transmission along the neuron.diathesisstress modelHypothesis that both an inherited tendency (a vulnerability) and specific stressful conditions are required to produce a disorder.dissociationDetachment or loss of integration between identity or reality and consciousness.dominant geneOne gene of any pair of genes that determines a particular trait.dopamineNeurotransmitter whose generalized function is to activate other neurotransmitters and to aid in exploratory and pleasure-seeking behaviors (thus balancing serotonin). A relative excess of dopamine is implicated in schizophrenia (although contradictory evidence suggests the connection is not simple), and its deficit is involved in Parkinson''s disease.emotionPattern of action elicited by an external event and a feeling state, accompanied by a characteristic physiological response.endocrine systemNetwork of glands that affect bodily functions by releasing hormones into the bloodstream. Some endocrine activity is implicated in psychological disorders.equifinalityDevelopmental psychopathology principle that a behavior or disorder may have several causes.explicit memoryGood recollection of actual events (contrast with implicit memory).fight/flight system (FFS)Brain circuit in animals that when stimulated causes an immediate alarm and escape response resembling human panic.flight or fight responseBiological reaction to alarming stressors that musters the body''s resources (for example, blood flow and respiration) to resist or flee a threat.forebrainTop section of the brain that includes the limbic system, basal ganglia, caudate nucleus, and cerebral cortex. Also called telencephalon.frontal lobeForward section of each cerebral hemisphere, most responsible for thinking, reasoning, memory, the experience of reward, and social behavior and thus most likely to be involved in a range of psychopathology.gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)Neurotransmitter that reduces activity across the synapse and thus inhibits a range of behaviors and emotions, especially generalized anxiety.genesLong deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecules, the basic physical units of heredity that appear as locations on chromosomes.glutamateAmino acid neurotransmitter that excites many different neurons, leading to action.hindbrainLowest part of the brain stem; regulates many automatic bodily functions, such as breathing and digestion, and includes the medulla, pons, and cerebellum.hippocampusPart of the brain''s limbic system that regulates emotions and the ability to learn and control impulses; figures prominently in some psychopathology.hormoneChemical messenger produced by the endocrine glands.hypothalamusPart of the brain that lies beneath the thalamus and is broadly involved in the regulation of behavior and emotion.imipramineOne of the tricyclic antidepressant drugs affecting the serotonergic and noradrenergic neurotransmitter systems. It blocks panic attacks but not more generalized anxiety and causes side effects such as dry mouth, dizziness, and, occasionally, sexual dysfunction; effective in some mood and anxiety disorders, as well as other disorders.implicit memoryCondition of memory in which a person cannot recall past events despite acting in response to them (contrast with explicit memory).inverse agonistChemical substance that produces effects opposite those of a particular neurotransmitter.learned helplessnessMartin Seligman''s theory that people become anxious and depressed when they make an attribution that they have no control over the stress in their lives (whether or not they do in reality).limbic systemPart of the forebrain involved in emotion, the ability to learn and to control impulses, and the regulation of sex, hunger, thirst, and aggression drives. This system figures prominently in much of psychopathology.maniaPeriod of abnormally excessive elation or euphoria, associated with some mood disorders.medullaPart of the hindbrain, which regulates such automatic bodily functions as breathing and digestion.midbrainSection of the brain that coordinates movement with sensory input and contributes to the processes of arousal and tension.modelingLearning through observation and imitation of the behavior of other individuals and consequences of that behavior.moodEnduring period of emotionality.mood disordersGroup of disorders involving severe and enduring disturbances in emotionality ranging from elation to severe depression.multidimensional integrative approachApproach to the study of psychopathology that holds psychological disorders as always being the products of multiple interacting causal factors.neuronIndividual nerve cell; responsible for transmitting information.neuroscienceStudy of the nervous system and its role in behavior, thoughts, and emotions.neurotransmittersChemicals that cross the synaptic cleft between nerve cells to transmit impulses from one neuron to the next. Their relative excess or deficiency is involved in several psychological disorders.norepinephrine (also noradrenaline)Neurotransmitter active in the central and peripheral nervous systems, controlling heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration, among other functions. Because of its role in the body''s alarm reaction, it may also contribute generally and indirectly to panic attacks and other disorders.occipital lobeSection of each cerebral hemisphere that integrates and makes sense of visual inputs.parasympathetic nervous systemPart of the autonomic nervous system that regulates bodily systems (for example, digestion) while activity level is low and that balances sympathetic nervous system activity.parietal lobeSection of each cerebral hemisphere responsible for recognizing touch sensations.peripheral nervous systemNeural networks outside the brain and spinal cord, including the somatic nervous system, which controls muscle movement, and the autonomic nervous system, which regulates cardiovascular, endocrine, digestion, and regulation functions.plasticityPhenomenon by which damage to neurons sometimes can be compensated for by the action of other neurons.ponsPart of the hindbrain that controls such automatic bodily functions as breathing and digestion.prepared learningAn ability has been adaptive for evolution, allowing certain associations can be learned more readily than others.quantitative geneticsMethod of genetics research that examines patterns of genetic control over a range of genes, each of which may contribute only a small effect.receptorsLocations on nerve cell dendrites that receive chemical impulses for transmission through the neuron.recessive geneGene that must be paired with another recessive gene to determine a trait.reciprocal geneenvironment modelHypothesis that people with a genetic predisposition for a disorder may also have a genetic tendency to create environmental risk factors that promote the disorder.reticular activating system (RAS)Section of the midbrain responsible for tension and arousal processes, including sleep and wakefulness.reuptakeAction by which a neurotransmitter is quickly drawn back into the discharging neuron after being released into a synaptic cleft.septumPart of the limbic system that regulates emotions and the ability to learn and control impulses, as well as such drives as sex, hunger, thirst, and aggression.serotoninNeurotransmitter involved in processing of information and coordination of movement, as well as inhibition and restraint. It also assists in the regulation of eating, sexual, and aggressive behaviors, all of which may be involved in different psychological disorders. Its interaction with dopamine is implicated in schizophrenia.sinoaortic baroreflex arcBody mechanism to compensate for sudden blood pressure increases by decreasing pressure. This reaction causes some people to faint and may lead them to develop phobias.somatic nervous systemPart of the peripheral nervous system that controls muscle movement.sympathetic nervous systemPart of the autonomic nervous system that prepares the body for activity or to respond to stressorsby increasing heart rate and blood flow to muscles, for instance.synaptic cleftSpace between nerve cells where chemical transmitters act to move impulses from one neuron to the next.telencephalonSee forebrain.temporal lobeSection of each cerebral hemisphere associated primarily with sight and sound recognition and with long-term memory storage.thalamusSmall region deep inside the brain broadly associated with regulation of behavior and emotion.unconscious visionSee blind sight.vasovagal syncopeFainting because of low blood pressure in the head and brain.vulnerabilitySusceptibility or tendency to develop a disorder.X chromosomeOne of the two sex chromosomes that determine gender; females have two and males have one, contributed by the mother. X chromosome abnormalities are implicated in some physical and cognitive problems.x-linked geneA gene on the X chromosome.Y chromosomeOne of the two sex chromosomes that determine gender; its presence, contributed by the father, determines the offspring will be male.